Friday, November 29, 2019

Round table discussion Essay Example

Round table discussion Paper My major Is business administration. I am a clear headed, ambitious individual who has taken the time to think about my future and my goals. I have undertook and completed my two years course in China. Being a transfer student to a foreign country requires me to continually focus, and focus more and more as the course has developed. And it is also give me an opportunity to continue a further education. I chose business administration as a general degree, which gave e the opportunity to learn and test all aspects of management and business so that I knew what I wanted to specialized in. By means of my education and experience, there are a few things In which I believe deeply that can develop individuals. First of all, we must choose the right direction, that Is, to choose a specific and clear objectives. Setting a goal Is Like building a pyramid. The power of target Is enormous. After the goal, we must establish It firmly. Then I believe everyone wants to succeed ND success Is around everyone, even If the success Is a small one. Actually, success means different things for different people. Some may equate it with money, some with work and still some with other. Whatever your dreams are, you have a goal there and then focus all your attention on it. Then success is sure to wait for you at somewhere. When it comes to values, my first thought was a standard criterion of everything. We will write a custom essay sample on Round table discussion specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Round table discussion specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Round table discussion specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer It is far away from success if you are only with the recognition of scholarship and ability by society. You should infect others with moral charm. Win the trust and respect of others, then you will the opportunities and success. Morality is a state, a pursuit, but also a force to promote its forward. Our responsibility Is to stick to the bottom line of moral in life. We should have social conscience. I believe that because good fortune had give me with better than average opportunity, I have a duty to perform In our communities. Thus, I must give more than receive. I believe one of the greatest ideas of all times is a convincing moral force which is the concept f the dignity and worth of human individual. That is my core value. In my life I have given myself certain goals, some relating to my personal life and some to my life in the business world, which I will do my best to complete. I do not believe in fate. No matter under what circumstances anyone would have a chance to change their destiny if they work hard. So I will continue to pursue the development of myself. That refers to the pursuit of my own qualities and enrich my own knowledge. Whats ore, let my family live In happiness. Being a good family member. I also planned financial goals. The most Important one is really assess my monthly expenses. Do I really need to pay such a hill of bills? While Im lucky enough at this point In my life not to be living month to month, that good fortune has made me lazier about making sure Im not Just wasting money. By the end of my graduation, I plan on analyzing the expenses and making adjustments that hopefully suit my lifestyle better and save me successful future.

Monday, November 25, 2019

Education in Saudi Arabia College Teachers and College Problems

Education in Saudi Arabia College Teachers and College Problems If one takes a deeper look at the situation that is taking place in the Saudi Arabian system of college education, he or she will not find any features that distinguish it much form the one that is presented in the European countries. Such is the educational sphere that, despite the different cultures and different approaches, sometimes even different epochs, the questions on the agenda remain the same.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Education in Saudi Arabia: College Teachers and College Problems specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The teachers in Saudi Arabia are now making huge steps toward progress, and they are trying to embrace the new inventions in the fields of education and students psychology. The modern views combined with the old traditions and approaches that have been proved by the time, make a mixture that helps the teachers in Saudi Arabia teach the students in the most efficient way. Speaking of the cu rrent state of the college teachers in Saudi Arabia, it is possible to say that despite they strive to follow the footprints of the European countries, they are still facing the difficulties connected with the lack of the technological innovations that the modern ways of teaching pupils presuppose. The necessity to have constant access to the newest means of educational process is not the thing that Saudi Arabian college teachers can afford, and at times that can cause a certain problem for both the teachers and the students. The sad fact might also influence the quality of education in the way that leaves much to be desired. The students might get not all the knowledge that they actually need fro their future life and career. Since these are the teachers who have to think about such things as the visual aids and the efficient ways for students to organize and remember the material that has to be learned, it is the prior concern of the teachers to help the students with the necessar y equipment. Like many other European countries that have taken up the modern innovations too fast, Saudi Arabian college teachers experience difficulties with the various equipment that provides the access to the innovations of the educational theories and the modern educational theories that help the teachers to make the subject understandable for the students.Advertising Looking for essay on education? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More For example, these are not all college teachers in Saudi Arabia that have access to the Internet. Thus, they cannot trace the novelties in the sphere of education all around the world, and thus they might miss the issues that might help them in explaining the topic to the students, or in making the subject easier to take and more interesting to develop. There are actually not other ways to get all this information than to use the on-line sources. Unfortunately, like many other teacher s form the European countries, the Saudi Arabian college teachers cannot afford such expenditures and such modern means of getting the first-source information. As it can be easily seen from the abovementioned facts, the main concern of the Saudi Arabian college teachers, like the college teachers from the countries from all over the world, perhaps, is that they cannot get instant access to any means that will allow them to brighten the education somehow, make it more modern and up-to-date, with advanced methodic included and applied to the process of learning and teaching, and learning teaching. The question is how one could take the teachers together and help them to seize the opportunity of enriching their knowledge with the newest systems of education existing at the moment? One of the best ways out could be actually gathering them to arrange some kind of private courses for upgrading the system of knowledge. The next question that is to be answered is how to do that. There are some ways to get all the college teachers in Saudi Arabia to take the online courses to improve their system of knowledge. This can be done, but such a project needs a big amount of time. One could send invitations to all college teachers in Saudi Arabia to have online courses. This could also be an appeal from an official on TV to take up the courses. On the one hand, sending letters can take a lot of time. But on the other hand, this method is good because the letters are addressed to each of the teachers in private. With such approach, the teachers will understand that each of them is appreciated.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Education in Saudi Arabia: College Teachers and College Problems specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The second approach is not so time-consuming, but it also has its drawbacks. First, some of the teachers can miss the appeal. Second, they can forget it as they switch off the TV. So it is mo re suitable to send letters to the college teachers. The content of the letters can be the same, just with different names in them. It should invite the teachers to receive online training. The next question is where these courses will take place. Not all teachers have computers and the access to the internet, so it will be good to arrange a set of places with computers and Internet access where the college teachers could come to have their online courses. This is close to the Internet-cafes. These places should be equipped with computers. When the teachers come they can have the courses online and find out about the new learning techniques. This will be an important step for them. Of course, such places will need funding, so this should be discussed in the government. It will certainly provide the project with the necessary funds, because it will provide the improvement in the college system. As a matter of fact, the hardest part of every project is the one concerning its being put into practice. However, with the necessary theories applied, this could be dealt with rather easily. The way the courses should be organized must be simple and effective. It would be rather useful to consider the following idea. First of all, it is good to think of the time management of the courses. The basic idea is that every single moment should be used to get the valuable information from the given source. This could be achieved with the help of a plan that has been well thought out.Advertising Looking for essay on education? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The next step would be using the time-savers and the tricks that help not to lose a single moment. Again, this is all what the well-based plan of the courses is all about. Then, it would be a good idea to make the people attending the courses understand and calculate their personal productivity. With this kind of knowledge, one can be sure to achieve success in the chosen sphere of work, especially speaking of the college teaching (McNamara 1996). Then, a wonderful idea is to get people organized as well. Starting from the desk they are sting at, and ending with the order in their minds, helping them with their course of thoughts to be streaming in the right direction. This will be, perhaps, the hardest part of the way, since every person is unique in his or her biological clock and not all the participants will be able to seize the essence of a certain idea at the same time (McNamara). With such approach to the college teaching, the Saudi Arabian college teachers will certainly be able to get over the problems that they are facing now, as well as the rest of the European countries. The positive effect will follow immediately. Reference McNamara, C. (1996) Personal Productivity. Web.

Thursday, November 21, 2019

English class assignment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

English class assignment - Essay Example For example is the commercial ad of Bud Light where it uses the punch line of â€Å"Whatever is coming, #UpForWhatever† (MrMayoFella). This kind of rhetorical device appeals to public because it is easy to understand and to remember. Also the use of product endorsers is a big plus to the commercial advertisement. The maker of this ad uses repetition wherein the words in the punch line are repeated in such a way that people will get it easily and will have more impact. Another Super bowl commercial ad that used rhetorical choices as its strategy to public viewers is the commercial ad of Doritos. It has a punch line of â€Å"Doritos For the Bold†. In its commercial ad, the boy was proposing to his girlfriend and placed the ring inside the Doritos. His girlfriend accidentally ate the ring (MrMayoFella). Analyzing the commercial ad, the rhetorical choice used was appeal to pride because of the punch line â€Å"For The Bold†. It’s like the advertisers are advising the public viewers that they should eat Doritos to gain boldness or pride. While the other commercial ads are modernized, the commercial of Audi used the rhetorical choice of appeal to history. The Audi commercial presented its past showing its credibility in car-making (MrMayoFella). Also the use of stating credentials can be said to be used in the Audi commercial ad because the credibility of the Audi was being stated in the commercial clearly. Also the M&M’s commercial ad used another rhetorical choice to appeal into the public viewers. The company showed an M&M chocolate singing â€Å"I’ll Do Anything For Love† while resisting to be cooked or eaten by people (MrMayoFella). This kind of rhetorical choice is satire. Analyzing the commercial ad, the advertisers made the public viewer laugh while inserting their point that you M&M chocolate are delicious combined with other foods. For the halftime show, the Super Bowl organizers invite famous singers to entertain the crowd. Then the

Wednesday, November 20, 2019

Fuel Systems and Alternative Fuels Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Fuel Systems and Alternative Fuels - Article Example He does not offer any substantive conclusion at the end of it. He leaves his readers with the task of doing more research to establish a middle path for the proponents and opponents of biofuels. The second article, â€Å"Farmers Growing Green with Energy†, discusses how some farmers have resorted to animal waste for generation of electricity. In as much the article highlights how a few farmers have benefited from the project, there are a number of shortcomings in the entire research. The article failed to inform the public on the minimum size of cattle that a farmer requires for minimum electricity production. It did not also give a list and quotation overview of all the required equipment for the project. Most importantly, this article should have highlighted any ethical issues that may arise in this project. As it stands now, small scale farmers may be under the impression that generating electricity from animal waste is very cheap and

Monday, November 18, 2019

The bible from Genesis to Revelations Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

The bible from Genesis to Revelations - Essay Example God created Eve and Adam who later gave birth to three sons, that is, Cain, Seth, and Abel. After some time Enoch emerges and later Noah and the ark. Next, is the story of the tower built in Babel and after about 1000 years later, Abraham also appears. The story of the people chosen by God begins from Abraham. This is because God had promised Abraham that he will make him a father of a big nation and his descendants will be as many as the stars. Abraham after many years gave birth to Isaac who later gave birth to Esau and Jacob. The name Jacob later changed to Israel and Israel means â€Å"wrestles with God†. Jacob gave birth to twelve sons who later formed tribes in Israel. The tribes were twelve in number just as they were twelve. Jacob’s most famous son was Joseph. Joseph was sold as a slave to Egyptians, and later he rose to a higher rank in Egypt and because of his influence in the Egyptian government, he managed to bring his family to stay in Egypt in order to save them from famine. The story in the book of exodus starts 400 years later. In this book, the family of Israel does not enjoy the prestigious status as it used to when Joseph was alive. Most of them were taken as slaves as when Joseph died (Maartens & Van, 2011). After about 400 years later, God broke His silence with his manifestations seen when he revealed Himself through signs and wonders to the masses. God, in order to make pharaoh leave his people to go back to the Promised Land, did many wonders in Egypt. The wonders inclu ded the plagues that he brought to the Egyptians. When Pharaoh released the Israelites, God gave them directions and told them how to build the tabernacle and this marked the book of exodus. The book of Leviticus begins, but it is full of laws hence nothing much on it can be discussed. Numbers is the next one and a good part of this book is about census. It begins with a census where they count the population of

Saturday, November 16, 2019

Analysis of Affordable Housing in London

Analysis of Affordable Housing in London 1.1 Arguments and Discussions A report published recently by the Greater London Authority on the problem of affordable housing in London in June 2005, revealed that the issue of â€Å"affordable housing† (Karn and Wolman, 1992; p.16) was the most pressing matter Londoners wished to see dealt with in terms of improving London as a place to live (Greater London Authority, 2005; Section 2.3). The Barker Review of Housing Supply, not only supported this viewpoint, but it identified housing as a basic human need (Barker, 2006; p.1). Affordable housing in London is therefore a controversial and highly topical subject at the moment (Karn and Wolman, 1992; p.16) (Barker, 2006; p.7). The debate surrounding it is underpinned by various political, sociological, economic and financial factors (Greater London Authority, 2005; Karn and Wolman, 1992; p16 (Rugg,1999; p.19). This thesis will examine why there is an affordable housing shortage; who really would benefit from affordable housing and what sectors of the population are affected by problems associated with affordable housing. The concept of affordable and who really wants it will be examined in detail, since the notion of affordability is essentially so subjective that it is open to interpretation on many levels. Affordability as a concept, will therefore be examined from an ethical point of view; from an economic point of view and finally from a sociological and political point of view, since these viewpoints will all constrain and influence the ultimate interpre tation of what it means to be affordable.    The thesis will attempt to discover if any agency or individual may be blamed for problems associated with affordable housing in London and the policy context this relates to. Historical factors such as Thatcher’s ‘Right to Buy’ policy (Evans, 2004; p.20) will be examined as well as contemporary initiatives such as equity loans for certain keyworkers’ schemes (Greater London Authority, 2005; Sections 5.16). Where historical issues have impacted the contemporary manifestation of issues connected with affordable housing, these will be analysed. Specifically, the thesis will examine contemporary and historical issues relating to affordable housing through two in depth case studies. One will be on the subject of the ‘Right to Buy’ policy introduced by Thatcher and the other will relate to the definition and depth of debate contained within the idea of affordable housing. These two in depth case studies will be examined qualitatively and will be referred to throughout the thesis. There will also be an economic analysis of the problem of affordable housing, and ideas such as artificially controlling the prices of houses in London will be considered. In this sense, there will be a theoretical evaluation of who really wants affordable housing, as the research will specifically ask if it would be desirable to advocate the imposition of affordable housing upon the London housing market.   The thesis will also consider various issues which are related to the problem of affordable housing such as social and economic policies within the city itself and the social problems which are themselves shaped by shortages of affordable housing in London. Therefore various themes will be drawn out during the course of the thesis and these will include social exclusion, poverty, salary concerns amongst professional and semi-professional sectors, house prices, population and demographic cleavages, anti-social behaviour and crime (Greater London Authority, 2005, Section 5.16 ). These themes will be drawn together to ultimately address the question of ‘Who really wants affordable housing?’. 1.2 Conclusions and Recommendations At this stage the conclusions and recommendations of the chapter are that given the issues which have been highlighted above, an argument can be made that affordable housing is a controversial issue which warrants further investigation. These investigations will attempt to shed more light on the concept of affordable housing and who really wants it. The next chapter will look at the methodology   for the thesis, which will set out the means through which this may be achieved.    CHAPTER TWO: METHODOLOGY 2.1 Overview This section will explain the definition and nature of qualitative research and how it will be used in the thesis inquiry. It will outline the research methods which will be used in the research and what framework these methods will be used within. The research will be based upon a qualitative analysis of two case studies; one contemporary which will be based on the concept of affordable housing itself, and the other historical and this will centred on the ‘Right to Buy’ policy introduced by Thatcher in 1980. These case studies will be derived from examination of published texts within the field of economic and politics. These texts have been identified as an appendix to the thesis. Where quantitative information is relevant to the thesis this will be looked at, but evaluated qualitatively, since the basis of the research will be mainly qualitative in nature. Primary evidence in the form of interviews was also used. 2.2 Hypothesis There are two hypothesises which will feature in this thesis. The first is that affordable housing is needed and wanted by the economically disadvantaged within London, and these groups include the poor, the disabled and specific sectors of workers who do not earn enough money to buy their own houses within London. Another hypothesis of the study is that affordable housing is a problem which comprises many interrelated and intersecting issues; all of which may be seen as sociological, economic and political. It follows that any credible proposals in relation to lessening the problem of affordable housing must take this into account, and simultaneously address economic, political and sociological problems. The essence of this hypothesis is therefore that this is the best why to understand and to approach the description and evaluation of the problem of affordable housing in London and who really wants it. These hypothesises will be tested throughout the thesis. 2.3 Aims and Objectives Specifically, the primary aim of the study is to examine whether the above mentioned hypothesises can be supported. Overall the aim of the study is to examine the concept of affordable housing in London, and who really wants it. Primary qualitative data in the form of interviews with key workers and London residents affected by the affordable housing problem, will also be conducted in order to achieve a better understanding of the problem of affordable housing in London. Another aim of the study is to present and interpret these results. Various perspectives on the problem of affordable housing; its possible solutions and impacts will be advanced and discussed by the writer on the basis of these investigations. The study will aim therefore to use this discussion in order to achieve a more full understanding of the problem of affordable housing in London; who really wants it and related sociological, economic and political issues. Ultimately the thesis will aim to add original literature to the research pool in relation to the problem of affordable housing in London, providing a detailed and holistic overview of the problem; who it affects and how its adverse effects may be lessened. 2.4 Arguments and Discussions Definition of Qualitative Research/Explanation of Why Qualitative Research is Appropriate    There are two main categories of research methods; qualitative methods (Bryman, 1995: p20) and quantitative methods (Bornat, Chamberlayne and Wengraf, 2000; Chapter One). The best way to define one is by reference and comparison to the other since the paradigm of research enquiry is mainly split between these two different research rationales (Bryman, 1995; p95 and 20).   Qualitative research aims to explain concepts and phenomena (Bryman, 1995; p95). Specifically the concept of affordable housing will be addressed in this research. As we have seen explained above, the focus of the research will be mainly qualitative in nature. However, in what ways is a qualitative research enquiry more appropriate to this question relating to affordable housing? Qualitative research tends to be more holistic (Knowles and Sweetman, 2004; p.12) than specific which means that it seeks to understand a topic ‘in the round’ (Bryman, 1995; p.20). On the contrary, quantitative methods value specificity and outcome linked methods of research (Trout, 1998; p.113). This holistic characteristic of qualitative research fits the wider aim of this thesis enquiry, as the problem of affordable housing, its causes, purpose, its critique and its improvement are all topics which, too, must be understood and approached ‘in the round’. Therefore, while quantitative work tends to predict and hypothesise (Trout, 1998; p.113) about possible outcomes, the qualitative researcher will often embark upon their research enquiry with an open mind (Bryman, 1995; p.20), researching malleable conclusions as the enquiry unfolds. This open ended research framework therefore fits the infinitely complex dynamics of affordable housing more appropriately ( Greater London Authority, 2005; Section 1-5).   This open-ended research aim (Knowles and Sweetman, 2004; p.12) relating to qualitative research may be contrasted with the aim of quantitative research which usually seeks to be confirmatory (Trout, 1998; p.113), rather than (and also more so than) explanatory (Harrison, 2001; p.68). In this context, qualitative research may be understood as inductive (Bryman, 1995; p.20) whereas quantitative research tends to be more deductive in nature. This type of research (qualitative) tends to be situational in nature and tends to reflect given cultural and theoretical mores (Knowles and Sweetman, 2004; p.12). This imbibes qualitative research methods with a level of subjectivity which would not be appropriate in a quantitative or positivist study, since the processes under examination (Greater London Authority, 2006; Sections 1-5) often cannot be pinned down by or encapsulated within a quantitative research framework. Again these characteristics of qualitative research fit the enquiry into af fordable housing more appropriately since the levels of subjectivity involved in the arguments and theories connected with affordable housing are vast (Greater London Authority, 2006; Sections 1-5).   Differences between qualitative and quantitative research may also be explained by arguing that qualitative research is process related (Bryman, 1995; p.20) with a relative lack of control (Knowles and Sweetman, 2004; p.12) over the various processes which are to be understood, whereas conversely variables are strictly controlled within the framework of a quantitative research framework (Trout, 1998; p.113). Others have explained the differences between qualitative and quantitative enquiries by arguing that the former is anthropological in nature (Bryman, 1995; p.20) (since it has a focus on society and sociological forces), while the latter; quantitative research being more ‘scientific’ (Trout, 1998; p.113). Qualitative research methods are also appropriate to this enquiry into affordable housing since they are unstructured (Knowles and Sweetman, 2004; p.12) and discursive (Bryman, 1995; p.20), allowing a researcher room to analyse possible outcomes/rationales/explanations (Knowles and Sweetman, 2004; p.12) as well as the ones which will potentially be accepted as the most credible. Colloquially, this characteristic of qualitative research leads many to regard it as a ‘soft’ subject’ area (Bryman, 1995; p.20) which lends itself well to the area of social science research as opposed to ‘hard’ subject areas such as maths or physics which may be described as more tangible (Trout, 1998; p.113). However, this particular dichotomy between qualitative and quantitative research methods discredits qualitative research for no better reason than those who critique qualitative research in these terms fail to understand that concepts and phenomena which may be described in tangible, or ‘scientific’ terms do not take precedence over research enquiries into what is not tangible. Simply because a concept may be difficult to understand in isolation, as qualitative subject matter often is does not mean that it is not capable of being understood credibly. Simply because qualitative subject matter may be understood credibly in different ways by different people does not strip each differing rationale of validity simply because another explanation may be pointed to. It must also be remembered that the objectivity of quantitative research often precludes the existence of other explanations of research phenomena, not because there are no valid alternative explanations but because the nature of quantitative enquiry is not always equipped to cope with multi-faceted concepts, whose existence and form may only be conjectured upon and not encapsulated within a given explanation. Concepts and phenomena are not always thoroughly understood through mere extrapolation, which is what makes the pragmatic and open-ended nature of qualitative enquiry universally important and specifically pivotal to this thesis enquiry into affordable housing.   These points should however, in no way, be interpreted as a critique of quantitative methods. Indeed, quantitative statistics and studies will be widely consulted as a vital part of the thesis enquiry (Greater London Authority, 2005; Sections 1-7). It just happens to be the case that qualitative research is a more appropriate means to seek to explain the particular context and rationales underpinning the issue of affordable housing in the context of this particular study. The points, mentioned above regarding the qualitative/quantitative aspects of the wider research paradigm are therefore merely a defence of the qualitative method which will form the main bedrock of this research design. 2.3 Sources and Framework  Ã‚   This thesis will rely upon   primary data gathered through interviews with interested parties and stakeholders in the area of affordable housing. Specifically, groups such as local residents and key workers in London will be interviewed and an interview with a Housing Association in Notting Hill will be conducted. The methodology for this thesis will also rely on sources, such as Government reports and current debates, reports/sources from interested parties in the non-profit making sector, case-studies and contemporary and historical books. These sources will all be used to contextualise the two case studies which, as has been explained previously, form a pivot of the thesis. Archival research in the form of retrieving and consulting relevant press publications and speeches through these means will also be important. The research will therefore be primary and secondary in nature, and it will mainly make wide reference to qualitative/phenomenological material. Reference will also be made to quantitative and empirically derived data. Examining the range of sources which have been explained above will ensure that the research engages the subject with the necessary degree of depth and theoretical perspective. 2.4 Conclusions and Recommendations The conclusion of this chapter is that qualitative research is ultimately more compatible with the overall research aims and objectives.   Primary and secondary qualitative research will be used to gather the information needed to comment on the validity of the hypothesises outlined above.     CHAPTER THREE: LITERATURE REVIEW PART ONE: DEFINITIONS; AND THE PROBLEM OF AFFORDABLE HOUSING IN LONDON 3.1.a Arguments and Discussions What Does the Concept of Affordable Housing Refer to? Affordable Housing has been defined by Plymouth City Council as: ‘Low cost market, and subsidised housing..that will be available to people who cannot afford to rent or buy houses generally available on the open market†¦.that definition should be framed to endure for the life of the plan, for instance through reference to the level of local incomes and their relationship to house prices or rents, rather than to a particular price or rent applicable at that one point in time (http://www.plymouth.gov.uk ).   Affordable housing causes particular demographic cleavages such as the inaccessibility of certain areas of London to what are referred to as key or essential workers such as teachers, nurses, police officers and employees of the health and social services (Greater London Authority, 2005; Section 5.16) (Karn and Wolman, 1992; p.16). This problem of inaccessibility means that these groups are ‘priced out of the market’ which means that on the salary that is typically earned by people in their jobs, it is difficult to find a house which is affordable (Karn and Wolman, 1992; p.16).  Ã‚   The problem of affordable housing has also defined as ‘infrastructure needs’. These needs have been elaborated on in the following way: ‘The changing face of London’s population has immediate implications for every aspect of London life-education.transport and infrastructure.employment and employability, competitiveness and culture†¦Housing provides a useful example..London has 42 per cent of England’s most overcrowded households..’ (Greater London Authority, 2006; Section 2.8).  Ã‚  Ã‚   Affordable housing therefore refers to a situation where there are not sufficient numbers of houses being built to satisfy the level of demand there is for these types of houses and accommodation in general (Greater London Authority, 2006; Section 5.17 and Karn and Wolman, 1992; p.16) (Barker, 2006; p.7). This situation (some would say artificially) increases the price of property within certain areas affected by affordable housing shortages. These are essentially the mechanics of affordable housing. This definition therefore goes to the heart of what the concept means in practical and real terms. However, this definition does not encapsulate how malleable this concept of affordable housing can be when it is viewed from particular standpoints. The concept of affordable housing is particularly linked with certain social and economic problems, such as social exclusion, poverty and crime (Pacione, 1997; p.7 and Rugg, 1999; p.19). This is also supported through the primary research findings of the writer. An interview with Kate Bond revealed that she was suspicious of the social problems which are associated with affordable housing developments and is reluctant to allow her children to play in these areas (Interview One, 2006; p.1). Affordable housing can therefore also be interpreted from a purely ethical standpoint, in which case it would refer to the wider problem of housing shortages being linked to problems such as poverty, crime and low wages for certain sectoral groups. In terms of economics (and this will be looked at in more detail in the next section) this ethical perspective it somewhat suspended from the analysis and the problem becomes one which is defined in terms of how certain factors such as supply, demand, resources and money shape the concept of affordability in terms of the housing sector. These issues of definition are important to an analysis of affordable housing since, if one is to examine the question of who really wants affordable housing, it is imperative to extrapolate the concept in sufficient detail. Therefore, the problem of affordable housing and its theoretical underpinnings and context will be examined alongside a discussion of what the concept essentially means to different people, as the next section, an economic analysis of the problem of affordable housing and who really wants it, will elucidate. 3.1.b Economic Analysis of the Problem The price of housing in a free-market economy is determined by supply and demand. The supply of houses increases, other things equal, as the price of housing rises. The reason for this is that as the price of housing rises, other things equal, producers will find it profitable to allocate more resources to the production of houses relative to the production of other things they might otherwise produce. However, as the price of housing rises, other things equal, the demand for housing falls. The reason for this is that as the price of housing rises, other things equal, consumers will find it advantageous to substitute away from the consumption of houses towards the consumption of other goods that are now relatively cheaper to purchase. The price of housing, known as the â€Å"equilibrium† price, is the price at which these two forces, demand and supply are equal. This is how economists’ typically analyse markets (Landsburg, 2002; ch.1). How does the price of housing adjust to ensure that â€Å"equilibrium† is reached? If demand exceeds supply, then there is more demand for housing at the existing price than producers are willing to supply at that price. In such circumstances, economists say that purchasers of houses are â€Å"rationed† – not everyone who wants to buy a house at the existing price can get one. These potential purchasers start competing with one another by offering suppliers a slightly higher price for a house than was the case in the market initially. This has two effects; first of all, the higher price induces more supply, and secondly, the higher price lowers demand. This means that the â€Å"excess demand† in the market that existed initially falls as a consequence of competition between rationed purchasers. Naturally, this process of competition will continue until prices have been bid upward sufficiently to ensure that demand and supply are equal. At this point, no-on e is rationed and excess demand falls to zero. Of course, this process can be reversed.   Imagine that at the existing price the supply of houses exceeds the demand. Now it is the producers of houses who are â€Å"rationed† – not everyone who wants to sell a house at the existing price can. As before, these potential sellers start competing with one another by offering purchasers a slightly lower price for a house than was the case in the market initially. This has two effects; first of all, the lower price induces less supply, and secondly, the lower price raises demand. This means that the â€Å"excess supply† in the market that existed initially falls as a consequence of competition between rationed sellers. Just like the previous case, this process of competition will continue until prices have been bid downward sufficiently to ensure that demand and supply are equal. At this point, no-one is rationed and excess demand falls to zero (Landsburg, 2002; ch.7). What are we to make of this analysis from economics? Economics helps us to understand how prices are determined. They are determined by the forces of supply and demand operating through the mechanism described above. But can this give us some insight into the concept of â€Å"affordability†? Not really. The notion of â€Å"affordability† is one that does not make sense within the discipline of economics. This might be a weakness of economics, but it might also be that the concept itself is meaningless. Let me explain. In economics, the equilibrium price of housing (also known as the â€Å"market† price) is the price that is desirable from a social point of view. It can neither be too high or too low. Provided that the housing market is a so-called â€Å"competitive† market then the equilibrium price is the one that society ought to want (Landsburg, 2002; ch.8). How does economics reach this surprising conclusion? It does so from noting that at the equilibrium price, all gains from trade in the market are maximised (Landsburg, 2002; ch.8). In other words, despite claims that economics is a â€Å"positivist† subject, it is committed to a specific normative theory of good (Hausman and McPherson, 1996; Ch. 1 and 8). That theory says that what is socially desirable maximises the gains from trade. What does this mean? Let us return to the excess demand example mentioned above. Imagine that at the initial market price, purchasers of houses are â€Å"rationed† – not everyone who wants to buy a house at the existing price can get one. It is simple to demonstrate that at this price, the increase in price needed to induce producers to build just one more house is strictlyless than what potential purchasers would be willing to pay a producer in order to build that house (Landsburg, 2002; ch.8). Given that this condition is satisfied, it is always possible for a mutually beneficial trade to occur between a potential buyer and a potential seller.   To illustrate this, imagine that a producer of houses (a builder, say) needs the price of houses to rise from  ¿Ã‚ ¡100,000 to  ¿Ã‚ ¡118,000 in order to find it profitable to build 11 houses as opposed to 10. If there is a situation of excess demand in the market whenever the price of a house is  ¿Ã‚ ¡100,000 then it is always possible to show that the maximum price someone would be willing to pay in order to induce the producer to build the additional house is strictly greater than  ¿Ã‚ ¡118,000. If that price is, for example,  ¿Ã‚ ¡150,000, then the two parties can trade to their mutual advantage. Imagine that the potential buyer offers the producer a price of  ¿Ã‚ ¡125,000 in order to build the house. This is a price the producer will happily accept. He or she would have built the house for  ¿Ã‚ ¡118,000 but instead gets  ¿Ã‚ ¡125,000 – the producer is better-off by  ¿Ã‚ ¡7000. Economists say that â€Å"producer surplus† rises by  ¿Ã‚ ¡7000 (Lands burg, 2002; Ch.8).   Similarly, the buyer gets the house for  ¿Ã‚ ¡125,000 but was willing to pay  ¿Ã‚ ¡150,000 for it. The buyer is better-off by  ¿Ã‚ ¡25,000. Economists say that â€Å"consumer surplus† rises by  ¿Ã‚ ¡25,000 (Landsburg, 2002; Ch.8). An important insight from economics, as seen in this example, is that mutually advantageous trade is possible. Trade is not necessarily a zero-sum game. How does this relate to the idea that the equilibrium price is the socially desirable one? It does so in the following way. As the excess demand in the market is gradually eliminated through upward movement in prices, the scope for mutually advantageous trade between buyers and sellers shrinks. Remarkably, when the excess demand for houses vanishes and the market is in equilibrium, no more mutually advantageous trades are possible. The price that would induce a producer to build an additional house is equal to the maximum price someone would be willing to pay for it – neither consumer surplus nor producer surplus can rise if this trade takes place. At the market equilibrium, all gains from trade have been realised and no more are possible. Economists refer to this state as one of â€Å"economic efficiency† or â€Å"Pareto efficiency†. (Landsburg, 2002; Ch.8). The above analysis is the main reason why economists (admittedly with some caution) advocate the use of free markets. If a market is competitive then it will produce on its own devices an equilibrium that is socially desirable (if one accepts the principle of economic efficiency). Adam Smith referred to this general idea (albeit in a different context) as the â€Å"Invisible Hand†. He said â€Å"Every individualgenerally, indeed, neither intends to promote the public interest, nor knows how much he is promoting it. By preferring the support of domestic to that of foreign industry he intends only his own security; and by directing that industry in such a manner as its produce may be of the greatest value, he intends only his own gain, and he is in this, as in many other cases, led by an invisible hand to promote an end which was no part of his intention† (Smith, 1776; p.243). Smith’s idea is that people acting in their own self-interest may produce unintended consequences which, surprisingly, can serve the social good. In the example above, individuals through competition with one another push the market price towards its equilibrium value, and this value is socially desirable. However, to do this was not the intention of the individuals involved. They were just competing with one another and trading with sellers for their own private benefit. How does this analysis help with the problem of â€Å"affordable housing†? From an economic point of view, affordability is a meaningless concept. It is simply not a social objective for things to be affordable, rather the government should seek to promote competition in the housing market and then leave the market to its own devices. This conclusion of economics is striking and quite at odds with other perspectives on this problem. I will argue that affordability is an important problem, and that something fundamental is missing from the economic approach to housing. Within economics what is missing is some notion of â€Å"equity†, or a concern for how the gains from trade are distributed across different people. To illustrate this point, imagine that the equilibrium price of a house in a competitive housing market is  ¿Ã‚ ¡200,000. Then those who are willing to pay  ¿Ã‚ ¡200,000 or more for a property will get one, and the situation will be efficient from an economic point of view. However, this might not be the â€Å"ethically appropriate† way to allocate houses to people. The reason is fairly obvious. What someone is willing to pay for anything is constrained by their income. A rich person might be willing to pay more for a house than a poor person, but this does not mean that it is better th at the rich person gets the house as opposed to the poor person. This is sometimes referred to in economics as the â€Å"equity-efficiency† trade-off. This is the idea that less efficiency is the price we have to pay sometimes if we want to ensure a more equitable distribution of goods across people (Landsburg, 2002; Ch.8). Policies designed to promote affordable housing fall into this category. The people who will gain the most from them are people on low income, who cannot guarantee that they will be allocated a house through the market mechanism. 3.1.c How is the Problem of Affordable Housing Addressed? Various policy initiatives have been introduced to ameliorate the problem of affordable housing in London. These will be discussed in this section. These policies and whether they have a positive impact upon the community will also be evaluated in this section.   One such policy   takes the form of Section 106 of the Town and Country Planning Act 1990 (which became operative in 1947 (Jackson, J., 1963; p.18 ), which seeks to address the problems which may arise in relation to affordable housing and the provision of local services (Monk, S. et al., 2005; p.24-27).   Where a major developer wishes to obtain planning permission for a development in a given area, it is the case that such developments will put pressure on local services such as schools or hospitals this Act seeks to ensure that some of the cost of such developments are borne by the developers who wish to develop the area (Monk, S. et al., 2005; p.24-27). Section 106 of this statute therefore provides that agreements may be reached between local planning authorities and developers in relation to planning permission, where the developer is required to make financial contributions towards the local services in the areas where the planned developments are to be built (Monk, S. et al., 2005; p.24-27). However, this statute has been criticised, especially by Kate Barker (2006; p.11), as being in drastic need to reform to make it more simple and certain. The Barker Review also recommended in relation to Section 106, that it be scaled back to address the direct impacts of developments (Barker, 2006; p.11). Also, Housing Associations in London such as the Keystart Housing Association, Tower Homes, Metropolitan Home Ownership and London Str Analysis of Affordable Housing in London Analysis of Affordable Housing in London 1.1 Arguments and Discussions A report published recently by the Greater London Authority on the problem of affordable housing in London in June 2005, revealed that the issue of â€Å"affordable housing† (Karn and Wolman, 1992; p.16) was the most pressing matter Londoners wished to see dealt with in terms of improving London as a place to live (Greater London Authority, 2005; Section 2.3). The Barker Review of Housing Supply, not only supported this viewpoint, but it identified housing as a basic human need (Barker, 2006; p.1). Affordable housing in London is therefore a controversial and highly topical subject at the moment (Karn and Wolman, 1992; p.16) (Barker, 2006; p.7). The debate surrounding it is underpinned by various political, sociological, economic and financial factors (Greater London Authority, 2005; Karn and Wolman, 1992; p16 (Rugg,1999; p.19). This thesis will examine why there is an affordable housing shortage; who really would benefit from affordable housing and what sectors of the population are affected by problems associated with affordable housing. The concept of affordable and who really wants it will be examined in detail, since the notion of affordability is essentially so subjective that it is open to interpretation on many levels. Affordability as a concept, will therefore be examined from an ethical point of view; from an economic point of view and finally from a sociological and political point of view, since these viewpoints will all constrain and influence the ultimate interpre tation of what it means to be affordable.    The thesis will attempt to discover if any agency or individual may be blamed for problems associated with affordable housing in London and the policy context this relates to. Historical factors such as Thatcher’s ‘Right to Buy’ policy (Evans, 2004; p.20) will be examined as well as contemporary initiatives such as equity loans for certain keyworkers’ schemes (Greater London Authority, 2005; Sections 5.16). Where historical issues have impacted the contemporary manifestation of issues connected with affordable housing, these will be analysed. Specifically, the thesis will examine contemporary and historical issues relating to affordable housing through two in depth case studies. One will be on the subject of the ‘Right to Buy’ policy introduced by Thatcher and the other will relate to the definition and depth of debate contained within the idea of affordable housing. These two in depth case studies will be examined qualitatively and will be referred to throughout the thesis. There will also be an economic analysis of the problem of affordable housing, and ideas such as artificially controlling the prices of houses in London will be considered. In this sense, there will be a theoretical evaluation of who really wants affordable housing, as the research will specifically ask if it would be desirable to advocate the imposition of affordable housing upon the London housing market.   The thesis will also consider various issues which are related to the problem of affordable housing such as social and economic policies within the city itself and the social problems which are themselves shaped by shortages of affordable housing in London. Therefore various themes will be drawn out during the course of the thesis and these will include social exclusion, poverty, salary concerns amongst professional and semi-professional sectors, house prices, population and demographic cleavages, anti-social behaviour and crime (Greater London Authority, 2005, Section 5.16 ). These themes will be drawn together to ultimately address the question of ‘Who really wants affordable housing?’. 1.2 Conclusions and Recommendations At this stage the conclusions and recommendations of the chapter are that given the issues which have been highlighted above, an argument can be made that affordable housing is a controversial issue which warrants further investigation. These investigations will attempt to shed more light on the concept of affordable housing and who really wants it. The next chapter will look at the methodology   for the thesis, which will set out the means through which this may be achieved.    CHAPTER TWO: METHODOLOGY 2.1 Overview This section will explain the definition and nature of qualitative research and how it will be used in the thesis inquiry. It will outline the research methods which will be used in the research and what framework these methods will be used within. The research will be based upon a qualitative analysis of two case studies; one contemporary which will be based on the concept of affordable housing itself, and the other historical and this will centred on the ‘Right to Buy’ policy introduced by Thatcher in 1980. These case studies will be derived from examination of published texts within the field of economic and politics. These texts have been identified as an appendix to the thesis. Where quantitative information is relevant to the thesis this will be looked at, but evaluated qualitatively, since the basis of the research will be mainly qualitative in nature. Primary evidence in the form of interviews was also used. 2.2 Hypothesis There are two hypothesises which will feature in this thesis. The first is that affordable housing is needed and wanted by the economically disadvantaged within London, and these groups include the poor, the disabled and specific sectors of workers who do not earn enough money to buy their own houses within London. Another hypothesis of the study is that affordable housing is a problem which comprises many interrelated and intersecting issues; all of which may be seen as sociological, economic and political. It follows that any credible proposals in relation to lessening the problem of affordable housing must take this into account, and simultaneously address economic, political and sociological problems. The essence of this hypothesis is therefore that this is the best why to understand and to approach the description and evaluation of the problem of affordable housing in London and who really wants it. These hypothesises will be tested throughout the thesis. 2.3 Aims and Objectives Specifically, the primary aim of the study is to examine whether the above mentioned hypothesises can be supported. Overall the aim of the study is to examine the concept of affordable housing in London, and who really wants it. Primary qualitative data in the form of interviews with key workers and London residents affected by the affordable housing problem, will also be conducted in order to achieve a better understanding of the problem of affordable housing in London. Another aim of the study is to present and interpret these results. Various perspectives on the problem of affordable housing; its possible solutions and impacts will be advanced and discussed by the writer on the basis of these investigations. The study will aim therefore to use this discussion in order to achieve a more full understanding of the problem of affordable housing in London; who really wants it and related sociological, economic and political issues. Ultimately the thesis will aim to add original literature to the research pool in relation to the problem of affordable housing in London, providing a detailed and holistic overview of the problem; who it affects and how its adverse effects may be lessened. 2.4 Arguments and Discussions Definition of Qualitative Research/Explanation of Why Qualitative Research is Appropriate    There are two main categories of research methods; qualitative methods (Bryman, 1995: p20) and quantitative methods (Bornat, Chamberlayne and Wengraf, 2000; Chapter One). The best way to define one is by reference and comparison to the other since the paradigm of research enquiry is mainly split between these two different research rationales (Bryman, 1995; p95 and 20).   Qualitative research aims to explain concepts and phenomena (Bryman, 1995; p95). Specifically the concept of affordable housing will be addressed in this research. As we have seen explained above, the focus of the research will be mainly qualitative in nature. However, in what ways is a qualitative research enquiry more appropriate to this question relating to affordable housing? Qualitative research tends to be more holistic (Knowles and Sweetman, 2004; p.12) than specific which means that it seeks to understand a topic ‘in the round’ (Bryman, 1995; p.20). On the contrary, quantitative methods value specificity and outcome linked methods of research (Trout, 1998; p.113). This holistic characteristic of qualitative research fits the wider aim of this thesis enquiry, as the problem of affordable housing, its causes, purpose, its critique and its improvement are all topics which, too, must be understood and approached ‘in the round’. Therefore, while quantitative work tends to predict and hypothesise (Trout, 1998; p.113) about possible outcomes, the qualitative researcher will often embark upon their research enquiry with an open mind (Bryman, 1995; p.20), researching malleable conclusions as the enquiry unfolds. This open ended research framework therefore fits the infinitely complex dynamics of affordable housing more appropriately ( Greater London Authority, 2005; Section 1-5).   This open-ended research aim (Knowles and Sweetman, 2004; p.12) relating to qualitative research may be contrasted with the aim of quantitative research which usually seeks to be confirmatory (Trout, 1998; p.113), rather than (and also more so than) explanatory (Harrison, 2001; p.68). In this context, qualitative research may be understood as inductive (Bryman, 1995; p.20) whereas quantitative research tends to be more deductive in nature. This type of research (qualitative) tends to be situational in nature and tends to reflect given cultural and theoretical mores (Knowles and Sweetman, 2004; p.12). This imbibes qualitative research methods with a level of subjectivity which would not be appropriate in a quantitative or positivist study, since the processes under examination (Greater London Authority, 2006; Sections 1-5) often cannot be pinned down by or encapsulated within a quantitative research framework. Again these characteristics of qualitative research fit the enquiry into af fordable housing more appropriately since the levels of subjectivity involved in the arguments and theories connected with affordable housing are vast (Greater London Authority, 2006; Sections 1-5).   Differences between qualitative and quantitative research may also be explained by arguing that qualitative research is process related (Bryman, 1995; p.20) with a relative lack of control (Knowles and Sweetman, 2004; p.12) over the various processes which are to be understood, whereas conversely variables are strictly controlled within the framework of a quantitative research framework (Trout, 1998; p.113). Others have explained the differences between qualitative and quantitative enquiries by arguing that the former is anthropological in nature (Bryman, 1995; p.20) (since it has a focus on society and sociological forces), while the latter; quantitative research being more ‘scientific’ (Trout, 1998; p.113). Qualitative research methods are also appropriate to this enquiry into affordable housing since they are unstructured (Knowles and Sweetman, 2004; p.12) and discursive (Bryman, 1995; p.20), allowing a researcher room to analyse possible outcomes/rationales/explanations (Knowles and Sweetman, 2004; p.12) as well as the ones which will potentially be accepted as the most credible. Colloquially, this characteristic of qualitative research leads many to regard it as a ‘soft’ subject’ area (Bryman, 1995; p.20) which lends itself well to the area of social science research as opposed to ‘hard’ subject areas such as maths or physics which may be described as more tangible (Trout, 1998; p.113). However, this particular dichotomy between qualitative and quantitative research methods discredits qualitative research for no better reason than those who critique qualitative research in these terms fail to understand that concepts and phenomena which may be described in tangible, or ‘scientific’ terms do not take precedence over research enquiries into what is not tangible. Simply because a concept may be difficult to understand in isolation, as qualitative subject matter often is does not mean that it is not capable of being understood credibly. Simply because qualitative subject matter may be understood credibly in different ways by different people does not strip each differing rationale of validity simply because another explanation may be pointed to. It must also be remembered that the objectivity of quantitative research often precludes the existence of other explanations of research phenomena, not because there are no valid alternative explanations but because the nature of quantitative enquiry is not always equipped to cope with multi-faceted concepts, whose existence and form may only be conjectured upon and not encapsulated within a given explanation. Concepts and phenomena are not always thoroughly understood through mere extrapolation, which is what makes the pragmatic and open-ended nature of qualitative enquiry universally important and specifically pivotal to this thesis enquiry into affordable housing.   These points should however, in no way, be interpreted as a critique of quantitative methods. Indeed, quantitative statistics and studies will be widely consulted as a vital part of the thesis enquiry (Greater London Authority, 2005; Sections 1-7). It just happens to be the case that qualitative research is a more appropriate means to seek to explain the particular context and rationales underpinning the issue of affordable housing in the context of this particular study. The points, mentioned above regarding the qualitative/quantitative aspects of the wider research paradigm are therefore merely a defence of the qualitative method which will form the main bedrock of this research design. 2.3 Sources and Framework  Ã‚   This thesis will rely upon   primary data gathered through interviews with interested parties and stakeholders in the area of affordable housing. Specifically, groups such as local residents and key workers in London will be interviewed and an interview with a Housing Association in Notting Hill will be conducted. The methodology for this thesis will also rely on sources, such as Government reports and current debates, reports/sources from interested parties in the non-profit making sector, case-studies and contemporary and historical books. These sources will all be used to contextualise the two case studies which, as has been explained previously, form a pivot of the thesis. Archival research in the form of retrieving and consulting relevant press publications and speeches through these means will also be important. The research will therefore be primary and secondary in nature, and it will mainly make wide reference to qualitative/phenomenological material. Reference will also be made to quantitative and empirically derived data. Examining the range of sources which have been explained above will ensure that the research engages the subject with the necessary degree of depth and theoretical perspective. 2.4 Conclusions and Recommendations The conclusion of this chapter is that qualitative research is ultimately more compatible with the overall research aims and objectives.   Primary and secondary qualitative research will be used to gather the information needed to comment on the validity of the hypothesises outlined above.     CHAPTER THREE: LITERATURE REVIEW PART ONE: DEFINITIONS; AND THE PROBLEM OF AFFORDABLE HOUSING IN LONDON 3.1.a Arguments and Discussions What Does the Concept of Affordable Housing Refer to? Affordable Housing has been defined by Plymouth City Council as: ‘Low cost market, and subsidised housing..that will be available to people who cannot afford to rent or buy houses generally available on the open market†¦.that definition should be framed to endure for the life of the plan, for instance through reference to the level of local incomes and their relationship to house prices or rents, rather than to a particular price or rent applicable at that one point in time (http://www.plymouth.gov.uk ).   Affordable housing causes particular demographic cleavages such as the inaccessibility of certain areas of London to what are referred to as key or essential workers such as teachers, nurses, police officers and employees of the health and social services (Greater London Authority, 2005; Section 5.16) (Karn and Wolman, 1992; p.16). This problem of inaccessibility means that these groups are ‘priced out of the market’ which means that on the salary that is typically earned by people in their jobs, it is difficult to find a house which is affordable (Karn and Wolman, 1992; p.16).  Ã‚   The problem of affordable housing has also defined as ‘infrastructure needs’. These needs have been elaborated on in the following way: ‘The changing face of London’s population has immediate implications for every aspect of London life-education.transport and infrastructure.employment and employability, competitiveness and culture†¦Housing provides a useful example..London has 42 per cent of England’s most overcrowded households..’ (Greater London Authority, 2006; Section 2.8).  Ã‚  Ã‚   Affordable housing therefore refers to a situation where there are not sufficient numbers of houses being built to satisfy the level of demand there is for these types of houses and accommodation in general (Greater London Authority, 2006; Section 5.17 and Karn and Wolman, 1992; p.16) (Barker, 2006; p.7). This situation (some would say artificially) increases the price of property within certain areas affected by affordable housing shortages. These are essentially the mechanics of affordable housing. This definition therefore goes to the heart of what the concept means in practical and real terms. However, this definition does not encapsulate how malleable this concept of affordable housing can be when it is viewed from particular standpoints. The concept of affordable housing is particularly linked with certain social and economic problems, such as social exclusion, poverty and crime (Pacione, 1997; p.7 and Rugg, 1999; p.19). This is also supported through the primary research findings of the writer. An interview with Kate Bond revealed that she was suspicious of the social problems which are associated with affordable housing developments and is reluctant to allow her children to play in these areas (Interview One, 2006; p.1). Affordable housing can therefore also be interpreted from a purely ethical standpoint, in which case it would refer to the wider problem of housing shortages being linked to problems such as poverty, crime and low wages for certain sectoral groups. In terms of economics (and this will be looked at in more detail in the next section) this ethical perspective it somewhat suspended from the analysis and the problem becomes one which is defined in terms of how certain factors such as supply, demand, resources and money shape the concept of affordability in terms of the housing sector. These issues of definition are important to an analysis of affordable housing since, if one is to examine the question of who really wants affordable housing, it is imperative to extrapolate the concept in sufficient detail. Therefore, the problem of affordable housing and its theoretical underpinnings and context will be examined alongside a discussion of what the concept essentially means to different people, as the next section, an economic analysis of the problem of affordable housing and who really wants it, will elucidate. 3.1.b Economic Analysis of the Problem The price of housing in a free-market economy is determined by supply and demand. The supply of houses increases, other things equal, as the price of housing rises. The reason for this is that as the price of housing rises, other things equal, producers will find it profitable to allocate more resources to the production of houses relative to the production of other things they might otherwise produce. However, as the price of housing rises, other things equal, the demand for housing falls. The reason for this is that as the price of housing rises, other things equal, consumers will find it advantageous to substitute away from the consumption of houses towards the consumption of other goods that are now relatively cheaper to purchase. The price of housing, known as the â€Å"equilibrium† price, is the price at which these two forces, demand and supply are equal. This is how economists’ typically analyse markets (Landsburg, 2002; ch.1). How does the price of housing adjust to ensure that â€Å"equilibrium† is reached? If demand exceeds supply, then there is more demand for housing at the existing price than producers are willing to supply at that price. In such circumstances, economists say that purchasers of houses are â€Å"rationed† – not everyone who wants to buy a house at the existing price can get one. These potential purchasers start competing with one another by offering suppliers a slightly higher price for a house than was the case in the market initially. This has two effects; first of all, the higher price induces more supply, and secondly, the higher price lowers demand. This means that the â€Å"excess demand† in the market that existed initially falls as a consequence of competition between rationed purchasers. Naturally, this process of competition will continue until prices have been bid upward sufficiently to ensure that demand and supply are equal. At this point, no-on e is rationed and excess demand falls to zero. Of course, this process can be reversed.   Imagine that at the existing price the supply of houses exceeds the demand. Now it is the producers of houses who are â€Å"rationed† – not everyone who wants to sell a house at the existing price can. As before, these potential sellers start competing with one another by offering purchasers a slightly lower price for a house than was the case in the market initially. This has two effects; first of all, the lower price induces less supply, and secondly, the lower price raises demand. This means that the â€Å"excess supply† in the market that existed initially falls as a consequence of competition between rationed sellers. Just like the previous case, this process of competition will continue until prices have been bid downward sufficiently to ensure that demand and supply are equal. At this point, no-one is rationed and excess demand falls to zero (Landsburg, 2002; ch.7). What are we to make of this analysis from economics? Economics helps us to understand how prices are determined. They are determined by the forces of supply and demand operating through the mechanism described above. But can this give us some insight into the concept of â€Å"affordability†? Not really. The notion of â€Å"affordability† is one that does not make sense within the discipline of economics. This might be a weakness of economics, but it might also be that the concept itself is meaningless. Let me explain. In economics, the equilibrium price of housing (also known as the â€Å"market† price) is the price that is desirable from a social point of view. It can neither be too high or too low. Provided that the housing market is a so-called â€Å"competitive† market then the equilibrium price is the one that society ought to want (Landsburg, 2002; ch.8). How does economics reach this surprising conclusion? It does so from noting that at the equilibrium price, all gains from trade in the market are maximised (Landsburg, 2002; ch.8). In other words, despite claims that economics is a â€Å"positivist† subject, it is committed to a specific normative theory of good (Hausman and McPherson, 1996; Ch. 1 and 8). That theory says that what is socially desirable maximises the gains from trade. What does this mean? Let us return to the excess demand example mentioned above. Imagine that at the initial market price, purchasers of houses are â€Å"rationed† – not everyone who wants to buy a house at the existing price can get one. It is simple to demonstrate that at this price, the increase in price needed to induce producers to build just one more house is strictlyless than what potential purchasers would be willing to pay a producer in order to build that house (Landsburg, 2002; ch.8). Given that this condition is satisfied, it is always possible for a mutually beneficial trade to occur between a potential buyer and a potential seller.   To illustrate this, imagine that a producer of houses (a builder, say) needs the price of houses to rise from  ¿Ã‚ ¡100,000 to  ¿Ã‚ ¡118,000 in order to find it profitable to build 11 houses as opposed to 10. If there is a situation of excess demand in the market whenever the price of a house is  ¿Ã‚ ¡100,000 then it is always possible to show that the maximum price someone would be willing to pay in order to induce the producer to build the additional house is strictly greater than  ¿Ã‚ ¡118,000. If that price is, for example,  ¿Ã‚ ¡150,000, then the two parties can trade to their mutual advantage. Imagine that the potential buyer offers the producer a price of  ¿Ã‚ ¡125,000 in order to build the house. This is a price the producer will happily accept. He or she would have built the house for  ¿Ã‚ ¡118,000 but instead gets  ¿Ã‚ ¡125,000 – the producer is better-off by  ¿Ã‚ ¡7000. Economists say that â€Å"producer surplus† rises by  ¿Ã‚ ¡7000 (Lands burg, 2002; Ch.8).   Similarly, the buyer gets the house for  ¿Ã‚ ¡125,000 but was willing to pay  ¿Ã‚ ¡150,000 for it. The buyer is better-off by  ¿Ã‚ ¡25,000. Economists say that â€Å"consumer surplus† rises by  ¿Ã‚ ¡25,000 (Landsburg, 2002; Ch.8). An important insight from economics, as seen in this example, is that mutually advantageous trade is possible. Trade is not necessarily a zero-sum game. How does this relate to the idea that the equilibrium price is the socially desirable one? It does so in the following way. As the excess demand in the market is gradually eliminated through upward movement in prices, the scope for mutually advantageous trade between buyers and sellers shrinks. Remarkably, when the excess demand for houses vanishes and the market is in equilibrium, no more mutually advantageous trades are possible. The price that would induce a producer to build an additional house is equal to the maximum price someone would be willing to pay for it – neither consumer surplus nor producer surplus can rise if this trade takes place. At the market equilibrium, all gains from trade have been realised and no more are possible. Economists refer to this state as one of â€Å"economic efficiency† or â€Å"Pareto efficiency†. (Landsburg, 2002; Ch.8). The above analysis is the main reason why economists (admittedly with some caution) advocate the use of free markets. If a market is competitive then it will produce on its own devices an equilibrium that is socially desirable (if one accepts the principle of economic efficiency). Adam Smith referred to this general idea (albeit in a different context) as the â€Å"Invisible Hand†. He said â€Å"Every individualgenerally, indeed, neither intends to promote the public interest, nor knows how much he is promoting it. By preferring the support of domestic to that of foreign industry he intends only his own security; and by directing that industry in such a manner as its produce may be of the greatest value, he intends only his own gain, and he is in this, as in many other cases, led by an invisible hand to promote an end which was no part of his intention† (Smith, 1776; p.243). Smith’s idea is that people acting in their own self-interest may produce unintended consequences which, surprisingly, can serve the social good. In the example above, individuals through competition with one another push the market price towards its equilibrium value, and this value is socially desirable. However, to do this was not the intention of the individuals involved. They were just competing with one another and trading with sellers for their own private benefit. How does this analysis help with the problem of â€Å"affordable housing†? From an economic point of view, affordability is a meaningless concept. It is simply not a social objective for things to be affordable, rather the government should seek to promote competition in the housing market and then leave the market to its own devices. This conclusion of economics is striking and quite at odds with other perspectives on this problem. I will argue that affordability is an important problem, and that something fundamental is missing from the economic approach to housing. Within economics what is missing is some notion of â€Å"equity†, or a concern for how the gains from trade are distributed across different people. To illustrate this point, imagine that the equilibrium price of a house in a competitive housing market is  ¿Ã‚ ¡200,000. Then those who are willing to pay  ¿Ã‚ ¡200,000 or more for a property will get one, and the situation will be efficient from an economic point of view. However, this might not be the â€Å"ethically appropriate† way to allocate houses to people. The reason is fairly obvious. What someone is willing to pay for anything is constrained by their income. A rich person might be willing to pay more for a house than a poor person, but this does not mean that it is better th at the rich person gets the house as opposed to the poor person. This is sometimes referred to in economics as the â€Å"equity-efficiency† trade-off. This is the idea that less efficiency is the price we have to pay sometimes if we want to ensure a more equitable distribution of goods across people (Landsburg, 2002; Ch.8). Policies designed to promote affordable housing fall into this category. The people who will gain the most from them are people on low income, who cannot guarantee that they will be allocated a house through the market mechanism. 3.1.c How is the Problem of Affordable Housing Addressed? Various policy initiatives have been introduced to ameliorate the problem of affordable housing in London. These will be discussed in this section. These policies and whether they have a positive impact upon the community will also be evaluated in this section.   One such policy   takes the form of Section 106 of the Town and Country Planning Act 1990 (which became operative in 1947 (Jackson, J., 1963; p.18 ), which seeks to address the problems which may arise in relation to affordable housing and the provision of local services (Monk, S. et al., 2005; p.24-27).   Where a major developer wishes to obtain planning permission for a development in a given area, it is the case that such developments will put pressure on local services such as schools or hospitals this Act seeks to ensure that some of the cost of such developments are borne by the developers who wish to develop the area (Monk, S. et al., 2005; p.24-27). Section 106 of this statute therefore provides that agreements may be reached between local planning authorities and developers in relation to planning permission, where the developer is required to make financial contributions towards the local services in the areas where the planned developments are to be built (Monk, S. et al., 2005; p.24-27). However, this statute has been criticised, especially by Kate Barker (2006; p.11), as being in drastic need to reform to make it more simple and certain. The Barker Review also recommended in relation to Section 106, that it be scaled back to address the direct impacts of developments (Barker, 2006; p.11). Also, Housing Associations in London such as the Keystart Housing Association, Tower Homes, Metropolitan Home Ownership and London Str

Wednesday, November 13, 2019

Edmund Kemper:Co-ed Killer :: essays research papers fc

The TV program â€Å"MUGSHOTS† uses the testimony of authorities that worked the case along with interviews with Kemper himself as to what was happening throughout the case from both sides of the story. The product of a broken and abusive home, Edmund Kemper grew up timid and resentful, with a perception of his own inadequacy. Before the age of ten, Kemper graduated to living targets, burying the family cat alive and subsequently cutting off its head, returning with the gruesome trophy to his room, where it was placed on proud display despite his tender age, he brooded over fantasies of love and sex, with violence playing an inevitable role. One afternoon, discussing Edmund's childish crush upon a grade-school teacher, Kemper's sister asked him why he did not simply kiss the woman. Kemper answered, deadpan, "If I kiss her, I would have to kill her first." A second family cat fell victim to his urges; this one hacked with a machete, pieces of the carcass hidden in his closet until his mother accidentally discovered them. Kemper's mother first packed him off to live with her estranged husband, and then - after running away - the boy was delivered to his paternal grandparents , residing on a remote California ranch. There, in August 1963, fourteen-year-old Kemper shot his grandmother with a .22-caliber rifle, afterward stabbing her body repeatedly with a kitchen knife. When his grandfather came home, Kemper shot the old man as well, leaving him dead in the yard. Interrogated by authorities, Kemper could only say "I just wondered how it would feel to shoot Grandma." Motiveless violence displayed in his actions got Kemper committed to the state's maximum-security hospital in Atascadero. In 1969, a 21-year-old behemoth grown to six-foot-nine and some 300 pounds, Kemper was paroled to his mother's custody over the objections of the state psychiatrists. During Kemper's enforced absence, his mother had settled in Santa Cruz, a college town whose population boasted thousands of attractive co-eds. For the next two years, through 1970 and '71, Kemper bided his time, holding odd jobs and cruising the highways in his leisure time, picking up dozens of you ng female hitchhikers, refining his approach, his "line," until, he knew that he could put them totally at ease. Some evenings, he would frequent a saloon patronized by off-duty policemen, rubbing shoulders with the law and soaking up their tales of crime, becoming friendly with a number of detectives who would later be assigned to track him down.

Monday, November 11, 2019

Endorsement Attributes: its implication in buying intention Essay

MARKETING RESEARCH We envision Saint Louis University as an excellent missionary and transformative educational institution zealous in the formation human resources who are imbued with the Christian Spirit and who are creative, competent and socially involved. SCHOOL OF ACOUNTANCY AND BUSINESS MANAGEMENT SAINT LOUIS UNIVERSITY PHILIPPINES October 2013 Endorsement Attributes: Its Implication to Buying Intention† Jonand Ray Estabillo, Deaniel Soriano, Raiza NerissaVeridiano, Gian Carlo Villoso and Zenedith P. Monang Abstract The research aimed to determine the level of effectiveness and the buying intention of the consumers based on the attributes of endorsers; Physical Attractiveness, Popularity, Source Credibility, Brand Congruency and Lineage/ Bloodline/ Heredity. Specifically, the study ought to answer the questions: what is the profile of the respondents in terms of their gender, occupation, hometown and nationality? Moreover, the study also sought to answer the question: how effective is the endorser and on what level is the consumer’s intention to buy. The researchers made use of a descriptive method of research, and questionnaires were utilized in collecting data. The respondents of the research were consumers from rural and urban places who are either a student or a young professional. Finally, the results of the study proves that consumer buying intention have a significant effect to the demographic and endorsement attributes such as physical attractiveness, popularity, source credibility, brand congruence and lineage/bloodline/hereditary. Keywords: Consumer Behavior, Buying Intention, Endorsement Attributes Introduction Companies of today spend a significant amount of their budget on hiring endorsers to advertise their products. These companies aim to have a sufficient return on investment with the expectation that these endorsers will be able to attract the attention of the customers, raise customers interest by focusing on and demonstrating advantages and benefits, convince customers that they want and desire the product or service and that it will satisfy their needs, and later on lead customers towards taking action and/or purchasing. Every Advertisement aims to create awareness and arouse interest in the minds of customers. To do so advertisers employ several of marketing techniques. Celebrity Endorsement is one of these power toolsby which advertisers try to leverage the image and identification of the celebrity to promote a product or company (Atkin& Block, 1983). This not only makes the advertisement lively, attractive, interesting, but attention getting as well (Ohanian 1991, Kamins 1990). So happens because audience takes the celebrity as a role model and in turn these celebrities impact their lives. Celebrity endorsement has been in application from a long time (Kaikati 1987), in fact not too late when advertisement techniques were taking on new forms because advertisers realized soon that by using publicly renowned personalities in advertisements they will be able to align brands personalities with that of the celebrity’s. That is why advertisers go for a careful selection of celebrities because if any micro aspect may go wrong in celebrity endorsement selection process, whole of the celebrity endorsed advertisement campaign may collapse. This will ultimately show brand the way back to pavilion (Kaikati 1987, Till and Shimp 1995). This study aims 1. ) To identify the endorsement attributes in purchasing/buying intention of the consumers 2. ) To analyzed the effectiveness of its attributes such as itsPhysical Attractiveness, Popularity, Source Credibility, Brand Congruence and Bloodline/Heredity/Lineage. Literature Review Marketing tends to take a new and unique way of advertising as advertisers are exploring different ways to make the advertisement effective and influential. One of these is the use of endorsers. Endorser is one important considerable literature on this topic exists. The need for endorsers has been described in various ways. According to Erdogan, Baker and Tagg (2001), a spokesperson’s role is tomake the advertisement stand out from the clutter, arrest potential customers, add value to the brand, and lastly, build a lasting impression to encourage the consumer to make a purchase. Lane and Russell (2000),argue that â€Å"one of the primary challenges for advertising is to provide a tangible and differentiating element to the marketing of services†. Stafford, Stafford and Day (2002) refer to ‘tangibility’ as â€Å"the visualization of a service’s benefits or qualities, the association with an extrinsic product, person, event, place or object, the physical representations of the service, and documentation such as facts or figures explaining the characteristics of a service†. The use of an endorser is one of the methods of enhancing the tangibility of the advertisement and differentiating it from others. The Endorser An endorser is a person who makes a ‘testimonial’, or a written or a spoken statement, extolling the virtue of some product. This person could be a public figure or a private citizen. A testimonial usually applies to sales pitches attributed to ordinary citizens whereas endorsement usually applies to pitches by celebrities (Liu, Huang, & Jiang, 2007). This study focuses on two (2) types of spokespersons – celebrity and anonymous. Celebrity Endorsers The use of celebrities to promote commercial goods and services is not new to advertisers. Companies envision that endorsers who are attractive and likeable will transfer such qualities to their brands and products. In addition, as celebrities are constantly in the media, they serve to constantly remind consumers of the brands that they endorse. Indeed, the use of celebrity endorsers has been gaining in popularity over time. Specifically, celebrity endorsers are effective in generating increased attention and enhanced image of the brand. However, their effectiveness in influencing purchase intention is more limited. †Celebrities are people who enjoy public recognition by a large share of certain Group of people. † And the term ‘Celebrity endorsement’ as defined by McCracken: â€Å"Any individual who enjoys public recognition and who uses this recognition on behalf of a consumer good by appearing with it in an advertisement. †(McCracken 1989) Advertisers go for celebrity endorsement because of its greater benefits and immense possible influence. There are certain potential advantages of celebrity endorsement, celebrities endorsed advertisements draw more attention as compared to those of non-celebrity ones, helps the company in re-positioning its product/brand and finally empowers the company when it’s new in the market or plans to go global. However celebrity endorsement doesn’t hold sole key to success. It also presents the company with potential hazards. These might include, overshadowing, overexposure, and controversy (Erdogan 1999). Lay endorsers or anonymous models Lay endorsers are unknown individuals who are chosen based on the target market demographics. These anonymous individuals offer association with the target audience for a less expensive price. They are usuallypackaged as the ‘typical person’ that the consumers can identify with (McCracken, 1989). Celebrity Endorsers vs. Non Celebrity Endorsers According to Seno & Lukas (2007), Celebrities are very much helpful than other type of endorsers such as the company manager, distinctive consumer and the qualified expert etc. On the opposing, companies clutch imperfect control over the celebrity endorsers, since they have created their public character themselves over the years. Previous research on celebrity endorsement reveals that celebrity endorsers produced more constructive attitude towards advertising and superior purchase intentions than a non-celebrity endorser (Atkin and Block 1983; Petty et al. 1983; Ohanian 1991). On the contrary, Mehta (1994) argue that there were no statistically major difference in attitudes towards advertising, brand and purchase intention on endorsed brand among celebrity and non-celebrity endorsements. But, differences were found in cognitive responses generated by respondents. Endorsement Attributes Physical Attractiveness Physically attractive communicators are more successful in changing beliefs than are unattractive communicators (Chaiken, 1979). In today’s society, people tend to place a heavy emphasis on attractiveness, and most advertisements feature attractive models. In a sense, the physical attractiveness of the endorser rubs off on the product, enhancing the product’s image and resulting in positive attitude change (Kahle and Homer, 1985). This points to the importance of â€Å"matching up† the image of the celebrity with the characteristics of the product. The â€Å"match up† notion suggests that the image of the product and the celebrity should come together, with the relevant attributes of the product being consistent with the characteristics of the endorser to gain positive impact with increased memorability and recall (Misra and Beatty, 1990). This effort to represent product and service imagery in ways that insinuate them into the consumer’s perceived needs and interests has always been the primary task of marketing. A clear understanding of what consumers expect in gender role endorsements can help marketers in the evaluation and planning of the portrayal of product characteristics in different markets. Popularity This has been taken to heart by advertisers. The use of celebrities to advertise aproduct is based on the assumption thatgetting famous personalities to represent abrand will result to a higher degree ofadvertising appeal, believability, and recall ascompared to anonymous models. Numerous studies have indicated the link between celebrity attractiveness and attitude changes toward issues, product, and advertising evaluations (Caballero and Pride, 1984; Chaiken 1979; Kahle and Homer, 1985). Others have suggested that when a celebrity’s physical attractiveness â€Å"matches up† or is congruent with the presence and degree to which the product or service advertised enhances attractiveness (i. e. , attractive celebrity linked with an attractiveness- related product) there would be a positive impact upon product/service and advertisement evaluations (Kahle and Homer 1985). Source Credibility Source credibility suggests that the effectiveness of a message depends on the â€Å"expertness† and â€Å"trustworthiness† of the source (Hovland, Janis, and Kelley, 1953; Sternthal, Dholakia, and Leavitt 1978). In general, a message source with higher credibility tends to be more effective than one with less credibility (Sternthal, Phillips, and Dholakia 1978). Since higher levels of source credibility tend to be associated with more positive attitudes toward the message and lead to behavioral changes (Craig and McCann, 1978; Woodside and Davenport, 1974), advertisers will opt to use celebrities if they think that they have a high level of credibility. Researchers have identified three components as making up the credibility construct: knowledgeor expertise, trustworthiness, and appearance or attractiveness (Baker and Churchill, 1977; Joseph, 1982; Kahle and Homer, 1985; Maddox and Rogers, 1980). Attempts to measure the impact credibility on consumers’ intentions to purchase indicate that only â€Å"expertise† had any significant influence on intentions to purchase. There also seems to be a direct correlation between believability and overall advertisement effectiveness, as measured by purchase intentions (Kamins, Brand, Hoeke, and Moe 1989). Credible spokespersons are perceived to be moresocially and intellectually competent, andhave higher levels of integrity which makesthem more persuasive (Till &Busler, 1998). Brand Congruence The term â€Å"congruence† is used in several research areas, particularly brand extension, co-branding, sponsoring, and endorsement. In all these cases, the aim is to assess the fit between a brand and another entity. A variety of terms have been used (congruence, fit, link, â€Å"match up effect†, etc. ) but the general concept is the same. In the field of celebrity spokespersons, congruence was not really defined as such until Misra and Beatty’s work (1990, p. 161). They deduced that it consisted of the factâ€Å"that the highly relevant characteristics of the spokesperson are consistent with the highly relevant attributes of the brand†. A number of authors have studied specific aspects of celebrity, such as gender and skin color (Huston, d’Ouville and Willis, 2003) or physical attractiveness (Kamins, 1990), but few have analyzed congruence in the broader sense. Purchase/ Buying Intention Endorsers who are liked, perceived to be trustworthy, expert, and attractive, are said to have more positive influences on advertisement believability and brand image,which can contribute to purchase intentions. They possess the ability to arrest and lure readers to an advertisement, thus making the communication more effective. Goldsmith et al. (2000) claimed thatcredible endorsers have been shown to have amore positive effect on consumer’s attitude towards the advertisement. Crediblespokespersons are perceived to be moresocially and intellectually competent, andhave higher levels of integrity which makesthem more persuasive (Till &Busler, 1998). These credible endorsers have the ability tosignificantly increase purchase intentions(Liu et al. , 2007; Pornpitakpan, 2003;Erdogan, et al. , 2001). Past researches suggest that messagesource characteristics affect the consumer’sattitude towards the advertisement which inturn affects their attitude towards the brand(Goldsmith et al. , 2000; Shimp& Gresham, 1985). Emotions and attitudes formedtowards an advertisement predict brand attitudes (Yoo&MacInnis, 2005). In addition, Brown and Stayman (1992) claimed that there is a consistent relationship betweenattitude towards the advertisement andattitude towards the brand and purchaseintentions. McKenzie et al. (1986) stated thatconsumers are said to have a tendency topurchase products from brands where theydevelop positive attitudes (Goldsmith et al. ,2000). There is a consistent pattern showingthe effect of attitude towards the brand on purchase intentions. Lineage/Bloodline/Heredity Advertising literature also emphasizes the influence of cultural variables in advertising effectiveness (McCracken, 1989; Paek, 2005). McCracken (1989) argued that â€Å"the success of celebrity-endorsed advertisements depends on whether the endorser is meaningful within a culture’s consumer values and norms†. In McCracken’s Meaning Transfer Model, he claims that celebrity endorsers contain a broad range of meanings such as demographics, personality, and lifestyle. These meanings are transferred from the endorser to the product, and afterwards, from the product to the consumer. It is important for advertisers to understand the culture of their market for them to be successful. This is because â€Å"consumers respond to advertising messages that are congruent with their culture, thereby rewarding advertisers who understand that culture, and who tailor advertisements to reflect its values† (Paek, 2005). Hofstede (1984) describes spokespersons as ‘cultural heroes’ because they serve as role models, and they possess characteristics that are looked upon by society. Typically marketers are defined to have the ability to control the behaviors of customers, but actually they have neither power nor information for that. Marketer may influence their buying behavior but not control. Several individual and not individual affect consumer behaviors. Motives, perceptions, attitudes, experiences, self concept, values can be considered as individual factors. And not individual factors can be expressed as, culture, profession, family, reference groups. Culture Culture is the complex of beliefs of human societies, their roles, their behavior, their values, traditions, customs and traditions. Culture is an extremely important concept to understand consumer behavior and that needs to be examined. Culture is the sum of a shared purpose among members of society, customs, norms and traditions. The basic reason of person’s desire or determination is culture. Geographical regions and religions are essential in the formation of sub-culture. The preference of individuals who live very close to each other can be different. Individuals belonging to different have different sub-culture values, attitudes and social structures of the members of other sub-culture. These differences, sub-cultural segmentation of the market activity has made an important variable. It is important to know thecharacteristics of the sub-culture in creating the marketing mix price, brand name identification, promotionalactivities and product positioning. Social groups, although they don’t show in a formal process of similar lifestyle shows are groups formed by individuals. There are several features of social class. First, the behavior of members of the social class structure, education levels, attitudes, values and communication styles are similar, and these characteristics are different from other social class members. Second, individuals’ status is determined according to their societies. Third, social classes are determined not by according only one variable, also by such variables like education, income, living area, activities and values. Demographics Endorsement Attributes †¢ Physical Attractiveness †¢ Popularity †¢ Source Credibility †¢ Brand Congruence †¢ Bloodline/Heredity/ Lineage Buying Intention H2 H1 Figure 1. Research Framework H1: There are no significant differences in the level of effectiveness of endorsement attributes when respondents are grouped according to demographics. H2: Endorsement attributes significantly contribute to buying intention. Methodology Research Design The research was conducted to know the effectiveness of endorsement attributes and its impact to consumer buying intention. The study used Descriptive Diagnostic Method to determine the endorsement attributes and its impact on consumer buying intention. Descriptive research (Kothari,2004) is used for studies that are concerned with describing the characteristics of a particular group, whereas Diagnostic research determines the frequency with which something occurs to its association with something else. The data had been carefully studied and statistically interpreted as what they implied. The collection of data was in the form of questionnaires that were floated to the individual respondents. These questionnaires contained specific set of questions in order to obtain useful data that would lead the researchers to meet the goals and objectives that were set for the study. Respondents Majority of the respondents were randomly selected when the researchers floated the questionnaires. There were 200 respondents for the study. The respondents in this survey consisted of 101(50. 5%) males and 99(49. 5%) females. About 127 (63. 5%) young professional and 73(36. 5%) students. It was discovered that respondents 105(52. 5%) are from the urban area and 95(47. 5) of them come from the rural area. The majority of the respondents’ nationalities were Filipino with the total number of 109 (54. 5%) respondents followed by the foreigners with the number of 91 or a 45. 5 %. Data Gathering Tool Relevant information, researches, and data were gathered through primary and secondary sources. Primary information and data were generated with the use of questionnaires made and floated by the researchers. These questionnaires were sent out to the consumers who are particularly students and young professional. Part of the questionnaire included direct questions regarding the buying intention of consumers on several factors on the effectiveness of the advertisement. Secondary sources of data came from published materials like journals, theses, books that were obtained from Saint Louis University Library and other sources found from reliable websites in the internet. Instrumentation The questionnaire consisted in two blocks. The first block of the questionnaire focuses on the demographic profile of the respondents. The second block of the questionnaire is divided into five parts, with each measuring the physical attractiveness, popularity, source credibility, brand congruency and lineage/bloodline/heredity. On the left, focuses on the level of effectiveness and on the right focuses on the intention to buy. The Likert scale have been used to examine the level of its effectiveness of the endorsement if it is highly effective (4) or highly ineffective (1) and how consumers affect their buying intention where (1) indicates will not buy to (4) will surely buy. Reliability and Validity The questionnaire were tested through a pre-float, given to 25 individuals, conducted at New Lucban, Baguio City and was proven to be reliable. Cronbach’s alpha was used to prove the internal and reliability of the questionnaire. It is commonly used when Likert wanted to determine the reliability of multiple questions in a survey. Reliability Statistic for the questionnaire was conducted with a result of . 863 Cronbach’s alpha ratefor the level of effectiveness and . 877 for the intention to buy with an overall rate of . 901 which indicates a high level of consistency and reliability for the level of the effectiveness of a questionnaire. An item-total statistics was also conducted, which means the importance of the question in a survey and with Cronbach’s alpha rate of . 851. Therefore, the questions have the high level of consistency and reliability and it is valid to use in the survey. Results and Discussion This study aims to identify the endorsement attributes that influence the purchasing/buying intention of the consumers. Endorsement Attributes Table 1. Level of Effectiveness of Endorsement Attributes Indicators Mean SD Sig 1. Physical Attractiveness 2. 8795 .40254 .000 2. Popularity 2. 6075 .30141 .000 3. Source Credibility 3. 1040 .46763 .000 4. Brand Congruency 3. 1550 .61332 .000 5. Lineage/Bloodline/Hereditary 2. 7795 .53980 .000 Physical Attractiveness The overall results revealed that the physical attractiveness of the endorser has a mean average of 2. 8795 (? = 0. 01) has an effect to the consumer on how they endorse clothing. When purchasing clothing, most consumers look into how endorser would feel comfort and look presentable to them. Physical Attractiveness is one important attribute. As consumers wants a product to satisfy certain specific needs. The benefit is also a factor that consumers have in mind when purchasing clothing. Many researches in advertising and communication suggested that physical attractiveness was an important cue in how an individual judge another person at first 30 sights. It is because beauty usually made a better first impression. Because of increasing use of celebrity endorsement, attractiveness became an important dimension of source credibility (Ohanian, 1991). Popularity Popularity was measured using 12 items; an overall mean score of 2. 6075 (? = 0. 01) found out that there is a moderate effect with the popularity of the endorser regarding its effectiveness. Items regarding politicians and musicians endorsing had results, which are only slightly effective. This implies that choosing someone who will endorse a certain product also has an effect to the consumer. Leventhal (1994 in Miller 1994) suggests that celebrity endorsements are always a high-risk, high-reward situation and there is always a human element that you never know, and you have to weigh the potential risks vs. the potential rewards. McCracken (1989) suggests that endorsement is successful, when the properties of the celebrity are made the properties of the endorsed product. However, the study by Walker et al. (1992) found that the endorser, which may have certain attributes that are desirable for endorsing the product, then again, he or she might also have other, even more closely associated attributes that are inappropriate for a specific product. Source Credibility Respondents indicate their level of effectiveness when an endorser possesses trustworthiness and expertise. Source Credibility items was measured with an overall mean score of 3. 1040 (? = 0. 01) and found out that it is moderately effective. An honest/sincere person endorses food scored a highest mean of 3. 4400 (? = 0. 01) while a dependable/reliable individual endorses food items score the lowest mean of 2. 8450 (? = 0. 01). This implies that the personality of the consumers is moderately effective as the influential of the endorser through its knowledge or expertise. Source credibility was the degree to which the receiver would believe the source has certain degree of relevant knowledge and/or expertise and they choose to believe the information offered by the source (Ohanian, 1990). At first, source credibility simply meant endorser’s credibility in an advertisement (Aronson, Turner and Carlsmith, 1963). Eventually it was considered as an important factor which might affect consumers’ purchase intentions and attitudes toward advertising (Lutz, MacKenzie, and Belch, 1983). Brand Congruency An overall average mean of 3. 1550 (? = 0. 01) found out that endorsement on this items are moderately effective. Endorsing gadgets by an individual person that matches his character have an effect towards the consumer. With an overall mean result of 3. 3650 (? = 0. 01) ranked the highest by the respondents. While on the other hand, an individual that endorses food items that matches his lifestyle got the mean of 2. 9500 (? = 0. 01) being the lowest in terms of brand congruency. The term â€Å"congruence† is used in several research areas, particularly brand extension, co-branding, sponsoring, and endorsement. In all these cases, the aim is to assess the fit between a brand and another entity (a new product category, another brand, an event, or an individual) (Fleck and Quester, 2007). A variety of terms have been used (congruence, fit, link, â€Å"match up effect†, etc. ) but the general concept is the same. Lineage/Bloodline/ Hereditary Respondents indicated that the mean for that of an individual with an alien foreign citizenship who endorses gadgets 2. 7795 (. 03817) revealed that it is slightly effective in relation with their lineage/bloodline/heredity. The overall results revealed that the lineage/bloodline/heredity of the endorser has a mean average of 2. 7795 (. 03817) has an effect to the consumer on how they endorse gadgets. This implies that most consumers tend to buy gadgets which are endorsed by aliens who have a foreign citizenship. Consumer Buying Intention Table 2. Intention to Buy based on the Endorsement Attributes Indicators Mean SD Sig 1. Physical Attractiveness 2. 7215 .29872 .000 2. Popularity 2. 3820 .57176 .000 3. Source Credibility 2. 9005 .34793 .000 4. Brand Congruency 2. 9450 .42494 .000 5. Lineage/Bloodline/Hereditary 2. 4885 .43677 .000 Physical Attractiveness Respondents indicated their intention to buy when an endorser is physically attractive and was measured with an overall mean score of 2. 721 (? = 0. 01) An elegant person who endorses gadgets has the highest mean of 2. 5850 (? = 0. 01) while a sexy individual who endorses food items score the lowest mean of 2. 6350 (? = 0. 01) This indicates that the decision of the consumers is that they most likely will not buy as the influence of the endorser with regards through his/her physical attractiveness. Popularity Popularity was measured using 12 items; an overall mean score of 2. 3820 (? = 0. 01) revealed that consumers will most likely not to buy in relation with the popularity of the endorser regarding consumer’s buying intention. Athletes endorsing food items rated a mean of 2. 9000 (? = 0. 01) which is the highest rate among the 12 items. A politician who endorses clothing has the lowest rate with a rated mean of 1. 7500 (? = 0. 01). This implies that athletes who endorse food items have a great influence in a consumer’s intention to buy goods. Hence, a politician endorsing clothing is not influential as compared to the latter. Food Products especially Cereals has used top-notch athletes to grace the cover of their box for decades. Now, more than ever, the use of celebrity athletes to endorse food products is mainstream advertising. Michael Phelps and Frosted Flakes. Eli and Peyton Manning promoting Double-Stuff-Oreos. No doubt, these celebrity athletes can sell the goods. Source Credibility Respondents indicate their intention to buy when an endorser possess trustworthiness and expertise. Source Credibility items were measured with an overall mean score of 2. 9005 (? = 0. 01) and found out that they will most likely buy. Results of this study found that, honesty and sincerity was significantly associated with buying intention, in addition, this result coincides with study’s result of (Yoon, et al,. 1998) as they found that three dimensions of endorser credibility have normal significant with buying intention. A number of empirical studies have found that credible endorsers positively influence consumer attitudes toward brand, advertisement, and consumers’ purchase intentions (Agrawal& Kamakura, 1995; Kelman 2006; Amos et al. , 2008). Brand Congruency An overall average mean of 2. 9450 (? = 0. 01) found out that the intention of consumers are most likely to buy as there is brand congruency. Endorsing gadgets by an individual person that matches his character have an effect towards the consumer. With an overall mean result of 3. 0250 (? = 0. 01) ranked the highest by the respondents. It is similar based on the nationwide survey under Solar, where 57 percent of selfies said their priorities for the next two years would be to acquire gadgets while 49 percent also cited having a car/vehicle. While regarded as the â€Å"me, me, me† generation, the Sun Life study suggested that these selfies also aspired to be financially independent by having a business and properties while waiting to start their own families. This may be because respondents come from the so-called â€Å"selfie† generation—a new breed of young adults without financial dependents who form a growing consumer powerhouse in this country. Their typical two-year priority is to splurge on lifestyle-related consumer items like gadgets and cars. (Dumlao, 2013) Lineage/Bloodline/Hereditary The overall results revealed that the lineage/bloodline/heredity of the endorser has a mean average of 2. 2885 (? = 0. 01) this implies that most consumers will most likely not to buy. However, for food items endorsed by either an individual with alien foreign citizenship or a natural born Filipino, the consumers are most likely to buy. This may be because of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs where food belongs to the Biological and Physiological needs which must be satisfied first while fashion and gadgets on higher levels like Social Needs and Self-esteem needs. Demographics and Endorsement Attributes Table 3. Demographics and Endorsement Attributes Indicators Demographics Mean SD Sig Physical Attractiveness Filipino 3. 0156 .41481 .000 Foreigner 2. 7165 .32016 Popularity Rural 2. 5705 .25552 .002 Urban 2. 6410 .33532 Source Credibility Male 3. 0703 .59170 .000 Female 3. 1384 .29057 Student 3. 3671 .45858 .001 Young Professional 2. 9528 .40254 Rural 3. 1179 .29499 .000 Urban 3. 0914 .58262 Filipino 3. 1991 .61002 .000 Foreigner 2. 9901 .11358 Brand Congruency Male 3. 2475 .73900 .000 Female 3. 0606 .43444 Student 3. 3356 .49367 .000 Young Professional 3. 0512 .65196 Rural 3. 0084 .38028 .000 Urban 3. 2876 .74275 Filipino 3. 3771 .67311 .000 Foreigner 2. 8890 .39594 Lineage/Bloodline/Hereditary Rural 2. 7011 .42011 .000 Urban 2. 8505 .62236 Filipino 2. 7055 .64000 .000 Foreigner 2. 8681 .37175 Physical Attractiveness In the first of Table 3, it shows that physical attractiveness of an endorser is significant and it has an effect in terms of its nationality. It implies that it is important for an endorser to have the physical qualities of a person whether Filipino or foreign to make the advertisement effective. Bers and Rodin (1984) pointed out that children increasingly focus their comparisons on attributes they regard as personally important as they grow older, with physical attractivene